Morton Benson, Evelyn Benson, Robert Ilson The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English Original edition published by: John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam-Philadelphia Copyright (c) 1986 by John Benjamins Publishing Company. PREFACE The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English gives essential grammatical and lexical recurrent word combinations, often called collocations; when necessary, it provides definitions, paraphrases, and Usage Notes. The methods and terminology used to present these collocations in the Dictionary are explained in the Introduction. Much of the material provided in this Dictionary has never before been published. This material is of vital importance to those learners of English who are native speakers of other languages. Heretofore, they have had no source that would consistently indicate, for example, which verbs are used with which nouns; they could not find in any existing dictionary such collocations as call an alert, lay down a barrage, hatch a conspiracy, impose an embargo, roll a hoop, draw up a list, administer an oath, enter (make) a plea, crack a smile, punch a time clock, inflict a wound, etc. This Dictionary provides such collocations; in order to enable the user of the Dictionary to find them quickly and easily, they are given in the entries for the nouns. Knowledge of other languages is normally of no help in finding English collocations. For administer an oath, French has faire pr\^eter serment, Spanish --- hacer prestar juramento, German --- den Eid abnehmen, Russian --- privesti k prisjage, etc. Thousands of similar examples could be cited. Use of the Combinatory Dictionary will help learners avoid such errors as *they mentioned him the book, *a stranger was lurking, *we are very fond, *we send you hearty greetings, *she told when she would arrive, etc. The BBI Dictionary is a companion volume to the Lexicographic Description of English. The latter work deals with the major problems facing compilers of general-purpose dictionaries of English, includes background information about the lexicographic treatment of collocations, describes the lexical, grammatical, and orthographic differences between American English (AE) and British English (BE), and provides an extensive bibliography. This bibliography indicates the major secondary sources used for the BBI Dictionary. In the BBI Dictionary, attention is consistently paid to lexical and collocational differences between AE and BE. These differences are noted in the entries and Usage Notes. The Introduction gives details concerning their treatment. AE spelling is used in the BBI Dictionary; however, in the headwords, the BE spelling is also given. We should like to express our gratitude for the help and advice that many persons gave us during the compilation of the Dictionary. All cannot be named here. We should, however, like to mention Mrs. Anne Zarit of Philadelphia, whose help was greatly appreciated. In closing, we note with appreciation the guidance, support, and encouragement of our friends at John Benjamins BV. The authors will be grateful for comments and suggestions from users of the Dictionary. M.B.,E.B.,R.I. INTRODUCTION GENERAL In English, as in other languages, there are many fixed, identifiable, non-idiomatic phrases and constructions. Such groups of words are called recurrent combinations, fixed combinations, or collocations. Collocations fall into two major groups: grammatical collocations and lexical collocations. GRAMMATICAL COLLOCATIONS Background A grammatical collocation is a phrase consisting of a dominant word (noun, adjective, verb) and a preposition or grammatical structure such as an infinitive or clause. For example, Noam Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (page 191) points out that decide on a boat, meaning 'choose (to buy) a boat' contains the collocation decide on (in his terminology: close construction), whereas decide on a boat, meaning 'make a decision while on a boat' is a free combination (in his terminology: loose association). Any native speaker of English feels that the components of decide on 'choose' and of other fixed phrases such as account for, accuse (somebody) of, adapt to, agonize over, aim at, etc. 'collocate' with each other. The native speaker will reject violations of collocability such as *decide at a boat, *account over a loss, *accuse somebody on a crime, *adapt towards new conditions, etc. Free combinations, on the other hand, consist of elements that are joined in accordance with the general rules of English syntax and freely allow substitution. For example, in English a verb may be followed by adverbials (of time, place, and manner). The resultant number of possible combinations is limitless: they decided --- after lunch, at three o'clock, during recess, immediately, in the library, on the boat, quickly, reluctantly, unhesitatingly, with a heavy heart, etc. Collocations should be included in dictionaries; free combinations, on the other hand, should generally not be included. (The inclusion of free combinations is sometimes essential to illustrate a sense of a polysemous entry in a general-purpose dictionary.) We will now describe eight major types of grammatical collocations; all of these are included in this Dictionary. The types are designated by G1, G2, etc. G1 G1 collocations consist of noun + preposition combinations. We do not normally include noun + of combinations. A very large number of English nouns can be used with of, especially to denote the concepts of 'direct object', 'subject', or 'possession'. Thus, we include the combination blockade against, but not blockade of. The phrase the blockade of enemy ports is a regular transformation of to blockade enemy ports. We include apathy towards, but not apathy of. A phrase such as the apathy of the electorate is predictable on the basis of the known functions of the preposition of. We also do not include noun + by combinations. The phrase the blockade of enemy ports by our navy is a predictable and regular transformation of the sentence: our navy blockaded the enemy ports. In addition, as already indicated, we will not include free combinations, such as apathy among (the members of our party), apathy in (France), etc. To save space, we usually do not include such derived prepositions as concerning, regarding, in regard to, with regard to. Note that the prepositions just listed are usually synonymous with about. Thus, an argument about is synonymous with an argument concerning, an argument regarding, etc. G2 G2 collocations consist of nouns followed by to + infinitive. There are five syntactic patterns in which this construction is most frequently encountered; these patterns are the following: 1. It was a pleasure (a problem, a struggle) to do it. 2. They had the foresight (instructions, an obligation, permission, the right) to do it. 3. They felt a compulsion (an impulse, a need) to do it. 4. They made an attempt (an effort, a promise, a vow) to do it. 5. He was a fool (a genius, an idiot) to do it. Some nouns can also be used with a verb form in -ing: it's a pleasure to work there = it's a pleasure working there = working there is a pleasure (= to work there is a pleasure). Such nouns usually occur in the first syntactic pattern listed above. The use of the -ing form is shown in the entries. We do not include nouns if they are followed by infinitives normally associated with the whole sentence rather than with the noun. Such infinitives express purpose; the phrase in order may be inserted between the noun and the infinitive with no change of meaning: they sold their house (in order) to cut down on expenses, he mowed his lawn (in order) to impress his new neighbors, she closed the window (in order) to keep the flies out, etc. Nor do we include nouns that occur in phrases such as a procedure to follow, a book to read, a place to eat, a way to do it, etc. In such constructions, the infinitive can be replaced by a relative clause: a procedure that is to be followed, a book that should be read, a place at which one can (should) eat, a way in which one may (should) do it. The BBI does not include colloquial phrases often found in advertisements: the dictionary to end all dictionaries, a computer to satisfy all needs, etc. Lastly, we usually do not include nouns preceded by a descriptive adjective: an interesting book to read, a difficult person to understand, a clever thing to say, etc. Note that in addition to nouns, some adjectives (G6) and some verbs (Pattern E) are followed by to + infinitive. G3 We include here nouns that can be followed by a that clause: we reached an agreement that she would represent us in court; he took an oath that he would do his duty. The Dictionary does not include nouns followed by relative clauses introduced by that, i.e., when that can be replaced by which: we reached an agreement that would go into effect in a month; he took the same oath that his predecessor had taken. Nor does it include nouns that can be followed by a clause only when they are objects of a preposition: it was by chance that we met; it was with (considerable) pride that he presented his findings. Some nouns can be followed by a clause with the present subjunctive in formal English: it was his desire that his estate be divided equally. See the comments on the use of the subjunctive in G8L. The use of the subjunctive is indicated in the entries for such nouns. G3 nouns expressing emotion (astonishment, surprise) may take a 'putative ' should: she expressed surprise that he should be thinking of changing jobs. G4 G4 collocations consist of preposition + noun combinations. Examples are: by accident, in advance, to somebody's advantage, on somebody's advice, under somebody's aegis, in agony, on (the) alert, at anchor, etc. G5 G5 collocations are adjective + preposition combinations that occur in the predicate or as set-off attributives (verbless clauses): they were angry at everyone --- angry at everyone, they stayed home --- my friends, angry at everyone, stayed home. Some adjectives must be followed by a prepositional phrase: they were fond of children. One does not normally say: *they were fond. In the sense 'craving' the adjective hungry is always followed by for in the predicate: they were hungry for news. The sentence they were hungry would have a different meaning. In a similar manner the adjective deaf in the sense 'unwilling to listen' is always followed by to: they were deaf to our pleas for help. Adjectives that are consistently used with a preposition in at least one sense are marked 'cannot stand alone' in the entries. Derived prepositions such as concerning, regarding, in regard to, with regard to, are not included in the entries. Note that the prepositions just listed are usually synonymous with about. In general, we do not include past participles (formed from transitive verbs) followed by the preposition by: this construction is regular and predictable. Thus, this Dictionary does not give such phrases as abandoned by, absolved by, etc. We include adjective + of constructions when the subject of the construction is animate (usually human): they are afraid (ashamed, confident, critical, demanding, envious, etc.) of him. See G6 for a discussion of adjective + of constructions used with a 'dummy' it subject. G6 G6 collocations consist of predicate adjectives and a following to + infinitive. Adjectives occur in two basic constructions with infinitives. 1. it was necessary to work In this construction, the it is a 'dummy' or 'empty' subject; it has no antecedent. Prepositional phrases with for can be inserted into this construction with many adjectives: it was necessary for him to work. If the verb is transitive, a direct object is, of course, added: it was necessary to supervise them closely. Some adjectives can be used with a prepositional phrase beginning with of: it was stupid to go --- it was stupid of them to go. (Sometimes, both of and for are possible: it was stupid of them to go; it was stupid for them to go.) Most adjectives that appear in adjective + of constructions (with the `dummy' it subject) followed by to + infinitive can also be used in sentences without the infinitive. An example is: it was stupid of them to go --- it was stupid of them (or: that was stupid of them). The possibility of dropping the to + infinitive is usually not indicated in the Dictionary. 2. she (the girl) is ready to go; it (the machine) was designed to operate at high altitudes In this construction, the subject is 'real' and usually animate. Some adjectives, however, normally occur in this construction with an inanimate subject: calculated, designed, etc. (See the example provided above with designed.) Several adjectives can occur in this construction with either an animate or an inanimate subject; an example is bound: she was bound to find out --- it ('the accident') was bound to happen. Other adjectives of this type are destined, known, liable, likely, etc. Several adjectives can be used in both constructions: it was supposed to rain --- she was supposed to work today. Some adjectives have the same meaning in both constructions: it was difficult to convince him --- he was difficult to convince. Other adjectives of this type are easy, hard, impossible, and tough. It should be noted that a large number of adjectives, when used with adverbs such as too and enough, can be followed by an infinitive: he was too absorbed to notice, she was alert enough to see it. These are not included in the Dictionary. The Dictionary does not include past participles that can be followed by a to + infinitive phrase of purpose: the text was proofread (in order) to eliminate errors. Nor does the Dictionary include past participles that are used in passive constructions: she was appointed (chosen, designated, elected, etc.) to serve as our delegate. Such constructions represent, in fact, the passive transformation of verb pattern H. (See below). The Dictionary does, however, include many other past participles: he was amazed (amused, annoyed, appalled, astonished, etc.) to see the results of our research. G6 collocations are normally illustrated in the Dictionary by examples. The examples will show in which construction (or constructions) each adjective is used. Note that many adjectives used with it and of can also be used with he/she: it was stupid of him/her to go --- he/she was stupid to go. Some G6 adjectives are normally not used without a following infinitive (or prepositional phrase), especially with an animate subject. We usually do not say *he is destined, *he is easy, *he is likely, etc., but rather he is destined to go far, he is easy to get along with, he is not likely to be late, etc. G6 adjectives of this type are marked 'cannot stand alone' in the entries. A few G6 adjectives (usually used with the 'dummy' it) can also be followed by a verb form in -ing: it's nice to work here = it's nice working here. The use of the -ing form is shown in the entries. Note that in addition to adjectives, some nouns (G2) and some verbs (pattern E), are followed by to + infinitive. G7 G7 adjectives (many of which are also in G6) can be followed by a that clause: she was afraid that she would fail the examination; it was nice that he was able to come home for the holidays. Several adjectives are followed by the present subjunctive in formal English: it was imperative that I be there at three o'clock; it is necessary that he be replaced immediately. See the comments on the use of the present subjunctive in G8L. G8 G8 collocations consist of nineteen English verb patterns, designated by the capital letters A to S. A description of each verb pattern follows. A. Pattern A verbs allow the dative movement transformation, that is, allow the shift of an indirect object (usu. animate) to a position before the direct object, with deletion of to when both objects are nouns and when the direct object is a noun: he sent the book to his brother --- he sent his brother the book and he sent the book to him --- he sent him the book. However, when both objects are pronouns, this transformation is common only in BE: he sent it to him --- he sent him it (marginal in AE). BE also allows he sent it him. B. Pattern B verbs are transitive; when they have an indirect object, they do not allow the dative movement transformation, i.e., the shift of the indirect object (usu. animate) to a position before the direct object with the deletion of to. Thus, we have they described the book to her, they mentioned the book to her, they returned the book to her, but not *they described her the book, etc. Compare the A pattern verb send, which does allow the transformation: they sent him the book. Verbs denoting types of noise fit pattern B: he screamed something to her. Other such verbs are: babble, bark, bellow, growl, etc. In a few rare cases, AE and BE usage differs. An example is the verb recommend, which in AE belongs to pattern B and in BE to pattern A. Such differences are indicated in the Dictionary. C. In pattern C, transitive verbs used with the preposition for allow the dative movement transformation, i.e., allow the deletion of for and the shift of the indirect object (usu. animate) to a position before the direct object: she bought a shirt for her husband --- she bought her husband a shirt, she bought a shirt for him --- she bought him a shirt. It must be emphasized that the Dictionary gives only those verbs that occur most frequently in the various meanings of make --- create. For example, in regard to culinary operations, the Dictionary includes the verbs bake, boil, brew, broil, chop, cook, fry, grill, grind, peel, scramble, slice, and toast (as in: bake me a cake, boil him an egg, brew her some tea, broil us a few steaks, etc.) However, the Dictionary does not include less frequently used verbs that can be used in the same constructions. Examples are: barbecue, braise, brown, devil, fricassee, oven bake, pan broil, pan fry, parboil, poach, saute, scallop, shirr, steam, stew, etc. D. In this pattern, the verb forms a collocation with a specific preposition (+ object). Free combinations such as to walk in the park are excluded. In addition, combinations of the type verb + by or with are excluded when the latter denote 'means' or 'instrument': they came by train, we cut bread with a knife, etc. Collocations consisting of a verb + as (+ object) are included in the Dictionary: to act as, to intrepret as, to serve as, to treat as, etc. Some D-pattern verbs are normally not used without a prepositional phrase. For example, one does not say: *we will adhere, *they based their conclusions, *our committee consists, etc. Well formed sentences are: we will adhere to the plan, they based their conclusions on the available facts, our committee consists of six members, etc. When a verb (or a certain sense of a verb) is normally followed by a prepositional phrase, its pattern is designated by the small letter d. The Dictionary does include compound verbs followed by prepositions: break in on, catch up to, etc. Note that out of is treated as a compound preposition. Transitive D-pattern verbs used with to and B-pattern verbs produce identical constructions. We assign to B those verbs that are normally used with an animate indirect object, and to D --- verbs normally occurring with inanimate indirect objects. Compare B: we described the meeting to them and D: we invited them to the meeting. E. In this pattern, verbs are followed by to + infinitive. Examples of this construction are: they began to speak, she continued to write, he decided to come, we offered to help, etc. Verbs are not included if they are normally used in phrases of purpose, that is, if in order can be inserted with no change of meaning: they were drilling (in order) to improve their pronunciation, he was running (in order) to catch a train, she stopped (in order) to chat, etc. F. This pattern includes the small number of verbs that are followed by an infinitive without to: we must work. These verbs, with the exception of dare, help (esp. AE), and need, are called modals. The verbal phrases had better and would rather also fit this pattern: he had better (would rather) go. G. In this pattern, verbs are followed by a second verb in -ing. Typical examples of this construction are: they enjoy watching television, he kept talking, we miss going to work every day, the house needs painting, she quit smoking, he regrets living so far from his family, etc. Note that some pattern G verbs are also in pattern E. Thus, we have approximately synonymous constructions: he began reading --- he began to read, she continued speaking --- she continued to speak. Several verbs, however, that appear in both G and E have a different meaning in each construction. The sentence he remembered to tell them means that 'he intended to tell them and told them'; he remembered telling them means that 'he remembered the act of telling them'. In a similar manner, the construction he forgot to tell them means that 'he intended to tell them, but forgot to do so'; he forgot (about) telling them means that 'he forgot that he (had) told them'. Note also the difference between the pattern G construction she stopped chatting 'she terminated her chat' and she stopped to chat. The latter construction contains an infinitive phrase of purpose similar to that in she dropped in (in order) to chat, she telephoned her friend (in order) to chat, etc. H. In this pattern, transitive verbs are followed by an object and to infinitive. Typical examples of this construction are: she asked me to come; they challenged us to fight; we forced them to leave; he invited me to participate; she permitted the children to watch television. Many of the verbs in this pattern can take the infinitive to be after the direct object: we advised them to be careful, she asked us to be punctual, the director authorized us to be in the laboratory, etc. For verbs that are normally used only with to be after the direct object, see pattern M. Most H-pattern verbs can be passivized: I was asked to come, we were authorized to use the laboratory, etc. Some, however, cannot be: beseech, bring, cable, cause, commit, get, have, intend, like, prefer, telegraph, telephone, thank, trouble, want, wire, wish, and write. I. In this pattern, transitive verbs are followed by a direct object and an infinitive without to. Examples of this construction are: she heard them leave, we let the children go to the park, they saw her drive up to the house, he watched them unload the car, etc. Some of these verbs are also used in pattern J. The use of I-pattern verbs in the passive occurs occasionally: we felt the earth move --- the earth was felt to move; they made us get up --- we were made to get up. Note the appearance of to + infinitive in the passive construction. In some instances, the -ing form seems more natural when the verb is passivized: she was seen driving up to the house. Most I-pattern verbs cannot be passivized: we had them fix our roof, she helped us move the furniture, they let the children go home, I watched them unload the car, etc. J. In this pattern, verbs are followed by an object and a verb form in -ing. Typical examples of this construction are: I caught them stealing apples, we found the children sleeping on the floor, he kept me waiting two hours, etc. Note that some verbs in this list are also used in pattern I. Thus, we have approximately synonymous constructions: she heard them leaving --- she heard them leave, he felt his heart beating --- he felt his heart beat, we watched them dancing --- we watched them dance, etc. J-pattern verbs can usually be passivized: they were caught stealing apples, the children were found sleeping on the floor, I was kept waiting two hours, etc. K. In this pattern, verbs can be followed by a possessive (pronoun or noun) and a gerund, i.e., a verbal noun. Typical examples of this construction are: please excuse my waking you so early, this fact justifies Bob's coming late, they love his clowning. Some of these constructions are very close to those in pattern J, which consist of verb + direct object + present participle. Note the following constructions that are virtually synonymous: I cannot imagine them stealing apples --- I cannot imagine their stealing apples; we noticed him leaving early --- we noticed his leaving early; they remembered Bill making that mistake --- they remembered Bill's making that mistake, etc. The possessive construction is awkward when two objects are joined by a conjunction. Thus, the construction I can't imagine Bill (or Bill's) and Mary's doing that is far less likely to occur than the pattern J construction I can't imagine Bill and Mary doing that. Native speakers of English often have individual preferences for one construction and may not find the other construction acceptable. Some speakers tend to avoid the possessive construction, which is considered to be bookish. Thus, instead of we excused his coming late, many will say we excused him for coming late; instead of we anticipated his refusing, they prefer we anticipated his refusal, etc. In this Dictionary we have attempted to include only the most frequently occurring verbs that can be followed by a possessive. L. In this pattern, verbs can be followed by a noun clause beginning with the conjunction that. Examples are: they admitted that they were wrong, she believed that her sister would come, he denied that he had taken the money, we hoped that the weather would be nice. In colloquial English the that may be omitted: they admitted they were wrong, she believed her sister would come, etc. Some verbs always take a noun or pronoun object before the that clause: she assured me that she would arrive on time, they convinced us that we should invest our money at once, he informed his students that the examination had been canceled. Such verbs are marked 'must have an object' in the entries. Other verbs can be used with or without a nominal object: he bet that it would rain --- he bet me that it would rain; we cabled that we would arrive on Tuesday --- we cabled them that we would arrive on Tuesday; she promised that she would come --- she promised her brother that she would come; we showed that we were good workers --- we showed everyone that we were good workers, etc. Such verbs are marked 'may have an object' in the entries. Most of the objects in the sentencees just cited seem to be direct objects, i.e., cannot be preceded by to. Note however that the (especially AE) construction he wrote me that he would come next month has the CE variant he wrote to me that he would come next month. Certain verbs in pattern L (often belonging also to pattern B) may be followed by a prepositional phrase with to: he swore that he would stop drinking --- he swore to us that he would stop drinking. Such verbs are marked 'to' in the entries. Some verbs in pattern L allow the insertion of the fact with little or no change in meaning: he acknowledged (admitted, confirmed, forgot, mentioned, etc.) that he was guilty or the fact that he was guilty. Verbs denoting types of noise fit pattern L: growl, grumble, grunt, mumble, etc. Several verbs, in 'correct' or formal English, are followed by a verb in the present subjunctive in the that clause. Examples are: he demanded that I be there tomorrow at ten o'clock, we moved that the resolution be accepted, the officer ordered that the soldier report to his unit immediately, she proposed that our class hold a reunion, they suggested that the firm appoint a new personnel manager. In BE the modal should is normally used (also in AE as a variant): they suggested that the firm should appoint a new personnel manager. The verbs used with a following subjunctive in formal English are marked subj. in the entries. The variant with should is also shown in the entries. Some L-pattern verbs can be followed by a clause either with the subjunctive or with the indicative; there is a difference in meaning. Compare: I suggest that she be/should be there at two o'clock --- the facts suggest that she is there. A few L-pattern verbs regularly have 'dummy' it as their subject: it appears that they will not come. Other verbs of this type are: follow, seem, transpire, turn out, etc. M. In this pattern, transitive verbs can be followed by a direct object, the infinitive to be, and either an adjective, or a past participle, or a noun/pronoun. In most instances, the same verb can be followed by any of these three forms. Examples of this construction are: we consider her to be very capable --- we consider her to be well trained --- we consider her to be a competent engineer; the court declared the law to be unconstitutional --- the court declared the law to be superseded by more recent legislation --- the court declared the law to be a violation of the Constitution; we found the roads to be excellent --- we found the roads to be cleared of snow --- we found the roads to be a serious problem for the state treasury. Note that this pattern includes verbs that normally take to be after the direct object. For verbs that combine freely with infinitives other than to be, see pattern H. N. In this pattern, transitive verbs can be followed by a direct object and an adjective or a past participle or a noun/pronoun. Here are several examples of this construction with an adjective: she dyed her hair red, we found them interesting, he made his meaning clear, the police set the prisoner free. Verbs used with adjectives in this construction are marked 'used with an adjective' in the entries. Examples with a past participle are: the soldiers found the village destroyed, she had her tonsils removed, we heard the aria sung in Italian. Verbs used with past participles are marked 'used with a past participle' in the entries. Examples with a noun/pronoun are: we appointed (designated, elected, made, named) Bob secretary, her friends call her Becky, they ordained him priest. Verbs used with nouns/pronouns are marked 'used with a noun' in the entries. Many of these verbs are also used in pattern H (appoint, designate, elect, name). Approximately synonymous constructions of the following types can thus be formed: we appointed (designated, etc.) him secretary; or: we appointed him to serve as secretary; or: we appointed him to be secretary. Some pattern N verbs are also used in pattern M. Note the following synonymous constructions: we consider her (to be) a competent engineer; the court declared the law (to be) unconstitutional; we found the roads (to be) cleared of snow; we proved him (to be) guilty, etc. Finally, it should be noted that some N-pattern verbs are used only with certain adjectives or with a certain adjective. For example, with the verb paint we can say to paint the walls blue/green/white, etc. With the verb shoot, we can only say to shoot somebody dead. O. In this pattern, transitive verbs can take two objects, neither of which can normally be used in a prepositional phrase with to or for. Examples of sentences with such double objects are: the teacher asked the pupil a question, we bet her ten pounds, the police fined him fifty dollars, God will forgive them their sins, she tipped the waiter five dollars, etc. Note the superficial similarity of the constructions we bet him ten pounds and we sent him ten pounds. (See pattern A.) Only the second construction allows the transformation we sent ten pounds to him. Pattern Ž is also very close structurally to pattern N (which has a noun/pronoun following the direct object: they called him a fool). The latter construction has one direct object (him), followed by a predicate (object) complement (a foot). Some pattern Ž verbs can be used with either of their objects alone: the teacher asked the pupil --- the teacher asked a question. Such verbs are marked 'can be used with one object' in the entries. Verbs pertaining to gambling such as bet, lay, and wager are noteworthy in being able to take in effect three objects --- a person, an amount, and a clause denoting the point of the bet: we bet him ten pounds that it would rain. Bet can be used with any of the three objects alone; lay seems to require the first and the second; wager can be used with either the second or the third alone. O-pattern verbs can usually be passivized; in most instances, at least one object can become the subject of the passive construction. Examples are: no questions were asked, ten pounds were bet, he was fined fifty dollars, they will be forgiven, the waiter was tipped five dollars. P. In this pattern, intransitive, reflexive, and transitive verbs must be followed by an adverbial. The adverbial may be an adverb, a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, or a clause. For example, we cannot normally say in English *he carried himself. An adverbial is required to form a complete sentence: he carried himself well; or: he carried himself with dignity. In a similar manner, without adverbials the following sentences are not complete: *Tuesday comes, *we fared, *the meeting will last, *my brother is living (= 'dwelling'), *a strange man was lurking, *I nosed the car, *she put pressure (cf.: she exerted pressure, which is acceptable), *the boys sneaked, *they tramped, *the trunk weighs, etc. Acceptable sentences can be formed only if an appropriate adverbial is added: Tuesday comes after Monday, we fared well, the meeting will last two hours, my brother is living in Utah, a strange man was lurking where we least expected him, I nosed the car (out) into the street, she put pressure on them, the boys sneaked into the auditorium, they tramped through the woods, the trunk weighs thirty pounds. Note that some polysemous verbs cited above may have senses that do not require an adverbial: they are coming, is he still living? a shot-putter puts the shot, etc. Some adverbials of duration may resemble direct objects: the meeting will last all day, this job took two hours, etc. In fact, these verbs are intransitive; we can say, for example, the meeting will last long. We must also mention here sentences with verbs of measurement, such as the trunk weighs thirty pounds. We treat thirty pounds as an adverbial complement rather than as a direct object, thus distinguishing this sense of weigh (which we consider to be intransitive) from the sense used in the sentence she weighed the trunk (which we consider to be transitive). Some verbs are invariably followed by a particle: hang around, well up, etc. Such forms can be considered compound verbs (phrasal verbs) and should be given in dictionaries as separate entries. They are not included in this pattern. In this Dictionary we have attempted to give only the most commonly used verbs and senses that have obligatory adverbials. We have not included all verbs that are followed by a way-phrase and an obligatory adverbial: we elbowed (fought, jostled, made, pushed, worked, etc.) our way through the crowd, they bribed their way to success, the Tatar cavalry burned its way through Eastern Europe, etc. The number of such verbs is very large. Q. In this pattern, verbs can be followed by an interrogative word: how, what, when, where, which, who, why; to these we add whether (which often alternates in clauses with if). These interrogative forms are often called wh-words. Note: verbs that can be followed only by what are not included. An example is the verb want; we can say he wants what I want, but not *he wants how I want. The verbs entered in the Dictionary can be followed by a wh-word and usually by either a to + infinitive construction or by a clause: he asked how to do it, she could not decide whether or not to begin, she knew when to keep quiet --- he asked how he should do it, she could not decide whether (if) she should begin, she knew when it was best to keep quiet. Although most pattern Q verbs do not take a noun/pronoun object before the wh-construction, several must have an object: we told them what to do, they informed us where applications were being accepted, etc. Such verbs are marked 'must have an object' in the entires. A few verbs can be used with or without an object: she asked why we had come --- she asked us why we had come. Such verbs are marked 'may have an object' in the entries. R. In this pattern, transitive verbs (often expressing emotion) are preceded by the dummy it and are followed by to + infinitive or by that + clause or by either. The construction (or constructions) in which each verb usually seems to occur is shown in the entries. Examples are: it behooves/behoves you to study more; it puzzled me that they never answered the telephone; it surprised me to learn of her decision and it surprised me that our offer was rejected. S. In this pattern, a small number of intransitive verbs are followed by a predicate noun or by a predicate adjective: she became an engineer; he was a teacher; he became smug; she was enthusiastic. The verb make, used intransitively, belongs here: he'll make a good teacher. A somewhat larger group of intransitive verbs can be followed only by a predicate adjective; these verbs are coded with the small letter s. Examples are: she looks fine; the flowers smell nice; the food tastes good. Special Note on Transitivity Verbs are always transitive in the following patterns: A, B, C, H, I, J, K, M, N, O, and R. In four other patterns verbs are consistently intransitive: E, F, G, and S. In the fifteen patterns just listed, verbs are not marked for transitivity. In patterns D and P, verbs of both types occur and are marked as tr. or intr. In patterns L and Q, verbs can be followed by a clause, and consequently, can be considered to be transitive. If another object must be used, the verb is marked 'must have an object'. If another object may be used, the verb is marked 'may have an object'. Survey of Verb Patterns In this survey the following special symbols are used: s = subject; v = verb; o = object (direct or indirect); c = complement; a = adverbial (when obligatory); v-ing = verb form in -ing. PATTERN DESIGNATION PATTERN A = svo to o (or) svoo B = svo to o C = svo for o (or) svoo D and d = sv prep, o (or) svo prep. o E = sv to inf. F = sv inf. G = svv-ing H = svo to inf. I = svo inf. J = svov-ing K = sv possessive v-ing L = sv(o) that-clause M = svo to be c N = svoc O = svoo P = sv(o)a Q = sv(o) wh-word R = s(ir)vo to inf. (or) s(it)vo that-clause S = svc (adjective or noun) s = svc (adjective) Note that collocational types G2 and G3 (for nouns) and G6 and G7 (for adjectives) are closely related grammatically to some of the verb patterns given above. LEXICAL COLLOCATIONS Background Lexical collocations, in contrast to grammatical collocations, normally do not contain prepositions, infinitives, or clauses, Typical lexical collocations consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. An example of an adjective + noun collocation is warmest regards, as in I send warmest regards. Typical violations of lexical collocability are *I send hot regards and *I send hearty regards. Many lexical collocations in English consist of a verb and noun, such as bring in an acquittal, file an affidavit, put on airs, etc. The various types of lexical collocations included in the Combinatory Dictionary will be described below. The Combinatory Dictionary does not include free lexical combinations. Free lexical combinations are those in which the two elements do not repeatedly co-occur; the elements are not bound specifically to each other; they occur with other lexical items freely. Thus, a construction such as condemn murder is a free combination. The verb condemn occurs with an unlimited number of nouns: they condemned --- the abduction, abortion, abuse of power, the acquittal, etc. In a similar manner, murder combines freely with hundreds of verbs: abhor, accept, acclaim, advocate, etc. On the other hand, commit murder is a collocation. The verb commit is limited in use to a small number of nouns, meaning 'crime', 'wrongdoing'; it collocates specifically with murder. We will now describe seven major types of lexical collocations; all of these are included in the Dictionary. The types aredesignated by L1, L2, L3, etc. The Dictionary attempts to give only those lexical collocations that are in common use. L1 L1 collocations consist of a verb (usually transitive) and a noun/pronoun (or prepositional phrase). Most L1 collocations consist of a verb denoting creation and/or activation and a noun/pronoun. We call such fixed lexical combinations CA collocations. Here are examples of collocations with verbs denoting creation: come to an agreement, make an impression, compose music, set a record, reach a verdict, inflict a wound. Here are examples of collocations that express the concept of activation: set an alarm, fly a kite, launch a missile, punch a time clock, spin a top, wind a watch. In some instances, the same noun collocates with one verb (or verbs) to denote creation and with another verb (or verbs) to denote activation: establish a principle (= creation) --- apply a principle (= activation); draw up a will (= creation) --- execute a will (= activation). In many instances the meanings creation and activation are united in one verb: call an alert, display bravery, hatch a conspiracy, impose an embargo, produce friction, inflict an injustice, offer opposition, pose a question, lay a smoke screen, put out a tracer, commit treason, issue a warning. CA collocations are arbitrary and non-predictable. Non-native speakers cannot cope with them; they must have a guide. They have no way of knowing that one says in English make an estimate (but not *make an estimation), commit treason (but not *commit treachery). In English one says commit fraud and perpetrate fraud. However, only the collocation commit suicide is possible; one does not say *perpetrate suicide. Even the native speaker may need at times to refer to a list of CA collocations. Many may not know which verbs collocate with such nouns as the following: acquittal, afterburners, authority, barrage, bench warrant, Caesarean section, cartwheel, circuit breaker, cloture, copyright, counsel, coup de gr\^ace, coup d'\'etat, etc. A native speaker of AE, who says to take up a collection, will not know which verb collocates with the colloquial BE synonym of CE collection, namely whip-round (have). Speakers of BE prefer to have a bath; AE speakers invariably take a bath. CE speakers make a decision; BE speakers can also take a decision. Many nouns collocate with verbs that refer to the actions of more than one participant. Such nouns will have different CA collocations according to which participant's role is being described. Thus, a copyright office grants or registers a copyright, but an author or publisher holds or secures one. CA collocations for polysemous nouns are extremely important. For example, the entry for the noun line has the following collocations: draw a line (on paper); form a line (= 'line up'); drop smb. a line (= 'write smb. a letter'). The entry for operation has: perform an operation (in a hospital); carry out (conduct) an operation (on the battlefield). As indicated above, the Combinatory Dictionary does not include free combinations. Thus, we exclude many combinations with verbs such as build, cause, cook, grow, make, manufacture, prepare, etc. even though, strictly speaking, they convey the meanings of 'creation' or 'activation'. Such verbs form an almost limitless number of combinations: build bridges (houses, roads), cause damage (deafness, a death), cook meat (potatoes, vegetables), etc.; such combinations seem to be predictable on the basis of the meaning of their component elements. On the other hand, we have included in L1 many collocations even if they do not mean 'creation' or 'activation'. Examples are: do the laundry, decline a noun, take one's seat, carry a story, confirm a suspicion, resist temptation, conjugate a verb, etc. L2 L2 collocations consist of a verb meaning essentially eradication and/or nullification and a noun. Such fixed lexical combinations are called EN collocations. Typical examples are the following: reject an appeal, lift a blockade, break a code, reverse a decision, dispel fear, squander a fortune, demolish (raze, tear down) a house, repeal a law, revoke a license, annul a marriage, suspend martial law, scrub (cancel) a mission, withdraw an offer, countermand an order, renege on a promise, crush (put down) resistance, break up a set (of china), rescind a tax, ease tension, quench one's thirst, denounce (abrogate) a treaty, exterminate vermin, override a veto, etc. The Combinatory Dictionary does not include predictable free EN combinations. For example, the verb destroy can be used with a very large number of nouns denoting physical objects; these have not been entered. Examples are: to destroy --- a barn, bridge, building, city, document, factory, harbor, house, laboratory, port, road, school, village, etc. L3 L3 collocations consist of an adjective and a noun. One well known pair of examples is strong tea (not *mighty tea) and weak tea (not *feeble tea). In many instances, more than one adjective (or more than one form of the same adjective) can collocate with the same noun: warm, warmest (not *hot); kind, kindest; best (not *good) regards. Other examples of L3 collocations are: reckless abandon, a chronic alcoholic, a pitched battle, a formidable challenge, a crushing defeat, a rough estimate, an implacable foe, a sweeping generalization, etc. As already indicated, the Dictionary attempts to give only the most commonly used lexical collocations. Many L3 collocations can be considered to be clich\'es. The Dictionary does not normally give collocations that are used solely in technical language. However, the Dictionary does give some technical collocations that will be of interest to students and teachers of English for Special Purposes. In English, nouns are often used as adjectives. Nouns used attributively may enter into L3 collocations: house arrest, jet engine, land reform, aptitude test. These collocations are given at the entry for the second noun. However, if in a 'fused' compound the second noun does not have the same basic meaning as it has when used alone, the compound is not included as an L3 collocation. Examples of such Multi-Word Lexical Units (MLUs) are: bowling alley, sitting duck, long shot, stuffed shirt, etc. An MLU is listed as a separate headword if it enters into a collocation. For example, the colloquial MLU double take ('delayed reaction') is given as a headword since it is part of the collocation to do a double take. In some instances, noun + noun collocations can be found more easily by the user of the Dictionary when they are listed at the entry for the first noun rather than at the entry for the second noun. For example, cabinet reshuffle is given at cabinet, drug pusher at drug, etc. Such collocations are listed in the entries under misc. L4 L4 collocations consist of a noun and verb; the verb names an action characteristic of the person or thing designated by the noun: adjectives modify, alarms go off (ring, sound), bees buzz (sting, swarm), blizzards rage, blood circulates (clots, congeals, flows, runs), bombs explode (go off), etc. The Dictionary does not include predictable combinations such as bakers bake, boxers box, cooks cook, dancers dance, fencers fence, etc. L5 L5 collocations indicate the unit that is associated with a noun. The structure of an L5 collocation is often noun{ of'noun2. Such collocations may indicate: a. the larger unit to which a single member belongs: a colony (swarm) of bees, a herd of buffalo, a pack of dogs, a bouquet of flowers, a pride of lions, a school of whales, etc. b. the specific, concrete, small unit of something larger, more general: a bit (piece, word) of advice, an article of clothing, an act of violence, etc. L6 L6 collocations consist of an adverb and an adjective. Examples are: deeply absorbed, strictly accurate, closely (intimately) acquainted, hopelessly addicted, sound asleep, keenly (very much) aware, etc. L7 L7 collocations consist of a verb and an adverb. Examples are: affect deeply, amuse thoroughly, anchor firmly, apologize humbly, appreciate sincerely, argue heatedly, etc. ARRANGEMENT OF ENTRIES General The Dictionary provides entries primarily for nouns, adjectives, and verbs. A few entries for adverbs and prepositions are also given. We will now describe the arrangement of each type of entry. Note that the following five principles apply to all entries. 1. Collocational types are indicated by illustrative phrases or sentences rather than by type designations. Verb entries are also coded. 2. Lexical collocations precede grammatical collocations. 3. Words characteristic of one variety of English are marked AE (for American English) or BE (for British English). For details concerning variety labeling, see the Style Guide, Collocational Strings, 9. 4. This Dictionary does not normally include idioms, i.e., frozen expressions in which the meaning of the whole does not reflect the meanings of the component parts: to kill two birds with one stone 'to achieve two aims with one action'; to be beside oneself 'to be in a state of great emotional confusion'. Some phrases, especially those expressing a simile, are transitional between collocations and idioms, that is, the meanings of the component parts are reflected partially in the meaning of the whole. The Dictionary does include important phrases of this type. For example, under misc., the entry for bird has as free as a bird, the entry for feather has as light as a feather, the entry for sugar has as sweet as sugar, etc. 5. The Dictionary does include important fixed phrases that do not fit into any of the types of grammatical and lexical collocations described above. Thus, the entry for business gives to mix business with pleasure, the entry for eye gives to feast one's eyes on smt., etc. Such phrases are normally given under misc. Order of Entries Headwords, including compounds, are listed in strictly alphabetical order. Thus, the phrasal (compound) verb go along follows goal. Solid compounds precede those written as two words. For example, makeup n. precedes make up v. Homographs, i.e., words with the same spelling, are listed according to the alphabetical order of their part of speech. Their order is, consequently, adjective, adverb, noun, verb. For example, abandon I n. precedes abandon II v. Noun Entries Collocational types given in noun entries are customarily arranged in the following order: L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, Gl, G2, G3, G4. Usually, each collocational type is given in a separate numbered item. However, in order to save space, two collocational types may be shown in the same item. For example, in the entry for allusion, we have to make an allusion to. This construction shows both L1 and Gl. Adjective Entries Collocational types are arranged in the following order: L6, G5, G6, G7. Verb Entries L7 collocations are given first; they are followed by the verbal patterns of G8, namely A to S. Items showing G8 items are coded, that is, each item is marked by a letter designating the appropriate verbal pattern. G8 items are listed in the alphabetical order of their letter codes. When there are several D/d collocations, these are given in the alphabetical order of the collocating prepositions. STYLE GUIDE The Swung Dash 1. The swung dash (~) usually replaces the headword within the entry. The swung dash is repeated only when necessary. 2. In entries for compound (phrasal) verbs the swung dash represents both the verb and the particle only when they are used in the unseparated infinitive or imperative form and also in the simple present tense, unseparated, with no (third-person singular) ending. The entry for get away has an infinitive in the collocation to ~ from; the entry for reach out has an imperative in the illustrative phrase: ~ your hand to me. The entry for run short has the illustrative phrase they never ~ of money. In all other instances, the swung dash represents only the verb; the particle is shown separately. The entry take down has the illustrative phrase to ~ testimony down in Shorthand. (Here the verb and particle are separated in the infinitive form.) The entry set apart has the phrase certain traits ~ them apart from the others. (Here in the simple present tense the verb and particle are separated.) The entry run around has the phrase he ~s around with a fast crowd. (Here the verb in the simple present tense has the third-person singular ending.) 3. The headword is used rather than the swung dash when irregular grammatical forms occur. Usually, these are irregular past tense forms of verbs. Occasionally irregular noun plurals must be shown. For example, in the entry for prisoner of war we have to interrogate; repatriate prisoners of war; in goose we have geese cackle, honk. Collocational Strings 1. When a headword collocates with various other words, the Dictionary usually lists the resultant collocations in strings. The presentation of collocations in strings not only saves an enormous amount of space, but it also allows the concentration of a great deal of material, facilitating the use of the Dictionary by its readers. 2. When collocations are listed in a string, a comma separates synonyms or near synonyms. Members of the collocational string are listed in alphabetical order. The entry for advice gives to give, offer ~. This string represents the synonymous collocations to give advice and to offer advice. 3. A semicolon separates non-synonymous collocations that are presented in a string. The entry for answerable has ~ for; to. This string represents the non-synonymous collocations answerable for and answerable to. 4. Both synonymous and non-synonymous collocations may be listed in one string. The entry for booth has an information; phone, telephone; polling, voting; projection ~. This string represents the collocation an information booth, the synonymous collocations a phone booth and a telephone booth, the synonymous collocations a polling booth and a voting booth, and the collocation a projection booth. Note that synonymous members of a string are grouped together, even though this upsets the overall alphabetical order. Note also that the article is not repeated in the string. 5. When the same noun collocates with different verbs and with different prepositions, the resultant collocations must be shown in different strings. Thus, under degree ('academic title') we have to award a ~ to; to confer a ~ on. Note that these collocations are synonymous; the semicolon between them separates different collocational strings rather than non-synonymous members of the same string. Another example is found in the entry damage ('harm'), which gives to cause, do ~ to; to inflict ~ on. These two strings represent the three synonymous collocations to cause damage to, to do damage to, to inflict damage on. 6. Separate strings are required when differences in the use of articles or of number must be shown. Differences in the use of articles are indicated in business 5: a mail-order ~; show ~; the travel ~. In atrocity 2 we see that the second string shows a collocation normally used in the plural: a dreadful, grisly, gruesome, horrible, horrid, monstrous, revolting, vile ~; death-camp ~ties. 7. As indicated above under Lexical Collocations, some nouns collocate with verbs that refer to the actions of more than one participant. Only verbs referring to the actions of the same participant may be listed in one string. Thus, the entry for copyright has one string for the actions of the copyright office (to grant, register a ~) and a different string for the actions of an author or publisher (to hold; secure a ~). 8. The examples given above show that normally each string has one swung dash. The sole exception occurs in strings that include a compound word, i.e., a word consisting of two (or more) roots spelled as one word. The last element of the compound is the same element with which the other members of the string collocate. In such instances, the member of the string preceding the compound must be followed by the swung dash. Under boat we have an assault; fishing; flying ~; gunboat; lifeboat; mosquito ~. 9. Stylistic and variety labels referring to one member of the string normally follow that member. Under show I we have to catch (colloq.), see, take in a ~. The entry accountant has a certified public (AE), chartered (BE) ~. Note that the variety label CE is usually not used. Thus, the entry for different 2 has ~ from, than (AE), to (BE). This means that CE has different from, AE has different than, and BE has different to. Definitions and Paraphrases 1. Definitions and paraphrases are enclosed in single quotation marks. 2. Definitions of nouns and adjectives in single quotation marks and square brackets refer to items that follow. Note the following example: accent n. ['pronunciation'] to affect, assume, imitate, put on; cultivate an ~, etc. When 'miscellaneous' items are not covered by any previously given definition, they are listed at the end of the entry and are preceded by misc. in single quotation marks and square brackets. For an example, see the entry for account I. 3. Definitions of senses of verbs and paraphrases of illustrative phrases are given in single quotation marks and parentheses. Such definitions and paraphrases refer to the preceding item. An example of a paraphrase is provided in the entry aback. The collocation given is taken aback; the illustrative phrase is I was taken aback, which is paraphrased as I was startled. 4. When verb definitions refer to the headword, they stand immediately after the coding. For example, go II 5 has the coding (d; intr.), followed by the definition ('topass'), the collocation to ~ by, and the illustrative phrase to ~ by smb.'s house. If, however, the meaning of the verb is clear only in combination with the following preposition, the definition follows not the coding, but the collocation. Thus, go 6 has the coding (d; intr.), the collocation to ~ by, the definition ('to follow'), and the illustrative phrase to ~ by the rules. Illustrative Phrases 1. Illustrative phrases follow the collocation that they refer to; they are given in parentheses. The entry adherence 2 has the collocation ~ to followed by the illustrative phrase strict --- to apian. 2. When synonyms are indicated in an illustrative phrase, they are separated by a slash (/). The entry for amazement has the illustrative phrase: they expressed their ~ at/with our performance. 3. Note that a collocation may be expanded so as to serve as an illustration. Under river 3 we have the L4 collocation a ~ flows expanded by the phrase (into the sea), enclosed in parentheses. Thus, river 3 reads: a ~ flows (into the sea). Usage Notes Usage Notes in the BBI provide additional information about the appropriate use of headwords and their collocations. The views of purists concerning correct usage are sometimes given. Usage Notes may also include details about the differences between AE and BE; for additional information about these differences, see the Lexicographic Description of English. Note, that the swung dash is not used in the Usage Notes. Pronunciation In general, the BBI Dictionary does not indicate pronunciation. In a few instances, however, phonemic transcription is provided in order to differentiate homographs. Thus, bow I is transcribed as /bau/ and bow III as /bou/; use I is transcribed as /ju:s/ and use II as /ju:z/. For details concerning the simplified transcription used in the BBI, see the Lexicographic Description of English. It should be noted that in some English homographs the stress of adjectives and nouns on one hand, and that of verbs on the other, may be different. In such instances, the adjective or noun has the stress on the first syllable, and the verb has the stress on the second syllable. Entries given in the BBI for such homographs with stress differences include: absent, abstract, address, ally, annex, compress, conduct, conflict, contract, contrast, convert, defect, discourse, escort, excerpt, extract, impact, implant, increase, intrigue, object, overhaul, permit, present, produce, progress, prospect, protest, rebel, rebound, recall (in AE), record, recount, refund, refuse, relay, remit (in BE), subject, suspect, transfer, transplant, transport, upset. A few nouns have variant stresses, i.e., either on the first or on the second syllable. Examples are: address ('place of residence'), ally, intrigue, recall (in AE), remit (in BE; this noun is not used in AE). Several verbs have variant stresses. Examples are: ally (in AE), annex, transport (in AE). In the meaning 'to summarize', the verb abstract is stressed on the first syllable. Note that the noun upset is stressed on the first syllable, whereas both the adjective and the verb are stressed on the second syllable; the adjective is, in fact, a past participle form. ABBREVIATIONS adj. adjective adv. adverb AE American English Am. American anat. anatomical BE British English Br. British CA creation and/or activation CE Common English cf. compare colloq. colloquial comm. commercial derog. derogatory EN eradication and/or nullification esp. especially fig. figurative GB Great Britain imper. imperative inf. infinitive intr. intransitive ling. linguistics lit. literary math. mathematics med. medicine, medical mil. military misc. miscellaneous mus. music n. noun neg. negative obsol. obsolete occ. occasionally pol. politics, political pred. predicative prep. preposition refl. reflexive rel. religion, religious subj. subjunctive (T) Trademark tr. transitive usu. usually US United States v. verb The capital letters A to S denote the verb patterns, explained in the Introduction, Grammatical Collocations, section G8. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-